Ideological Turing Tests

Following up on my last post I’d like to suggest another video from Leah Libresco that perhaps should be required viewing here.

Not only is it relevant to every conversation we have here but it is related to Turing Tests something that I find fascinating and important for “my Game” if I ever get around to it.

 

Here is a link for the corresponding Ideological Turing Test

http://www.patheos.com/blogs/unequallyyoked/ideological-turing-test-contest

What do you think? Should we come up with some questions surrounding Intelligent Design?

peace

220 thoughts on “Ideological Turing Tests

  1. walto,

    You should share his comments here–if he wouldn’t mind. Or at least paraphrase them so others can see if they agree with his take on “exactly what it is.”

    Our 10 minute conversation re common descent is on youtube. If you are interested I will share the link. To summarize his position:
    -He believes there is evidence supporting common descent because of similar DNA sequences among species.
    -He believes to fully explain common descent you must account for the differences and this is tricky
    -Common descent is a battle he chooses not to engage in because he does not see it as a major issue and it requires making predictions based on historic data.
    -He prefers the design hypothesis because it can be made by direct observation and does not require sorting out historic data.

  2. Interview with Michael Behe on The Edge of Evolution

    Michael Behe:
    To a surprising extent prevailing evolutionary theory and intelligent design are harmonious. Both agree that the universe and life unfolded over vast ages; both agree that species could follow species in the common descent of life. They differ solely in the overriding role Darwinism ascribes to randomness

    […]

    So in judging the likelihood of common descent, I discount problems that could be classified as “how did that get here?” Instead, I give much more weight to the “mistakes” or “useless features” arguments. If some peculiar feature is shared between two species which, as far as we can tell, has no particular function, and which in other contexts we would likely call a genetic accident, then I count that as rather strong evidence for common descent

  3. colewd: Darwin argued for a different standard to evaluate evolutionary theory because it was historic science and critical claims could not be tested

    Behe thinks the evidence is strong, therefore, Behe thinks it can be tested, and it has been tested.

  4. colewd: He prefers the design hypothesis because it can be made by direct observation and does not require sorting out historic data.

    This is utter bullshit. If we can observe intelligent design in action (remember ID is supposed to explain how living forms came about) when has anybody seen anything being “designed”?

    ID can’t answer the “what” questions, or the “how” or “when” questions, because it’s completely devoid of explanatory power.

  5. I watched that vid.. in it’s entirety! it’s a loooong podcast in Jonathan McLatchie’s YouTube channel. That’s where Bill dropped that gem about sequence space size being “an almost infinite, imaginary number”

    It was 100% worth it just for that good laugh

  6. fmm

    I wonder how you can possibly know that since neither of us has offered a “fundamental definition” of ID. It seems to me that there are a lot of claims about what the other side believes.

    If ID includes or does not include a designer seems fairly fundamental to me.

    colewd: The designer is not discussed in ID theory. Design is the observation not the designer. It is very surprising that you did not know this.

    fmm

    This is important because I feel ID boils down to determining if there is a mind behind the universe and/or life and so far Turing Tests are the best tool we have for doing that sort of thing.

    So it seems that ID does not discuss the designer while attempting to determine if that designer is the mind behind the universe.

    Whatever.

  7. Design is a process, not an object. Objects we call “designs” are side-effect outputs of that process. As Dembski discovered, you can’t determine if an object was the side-effect of an intelligent, intentional process all by itself. You need more context, more background. In a nutshell, you MUST know the nature and methods and purpose of the designer. Without this knowledge, you can’t really guess whether some unknown unidentifiable object was “designed” in this sense.

    Essentially, ID starts with the presumptions that (1) there IS a designer of life, so life is therefore an intelligent design; and (2) we can support this presumption with various sorts of statistical legerdemain. For the ID proponent, their personal god is fundamental, not open to any doubt. But without this god (“we don’t deal with the designer”) their claims remain vacuous assertions of vague theology.

  8. colewd: The designer is not discussed in ID theory. Design is the observation not the designer. It is very surprising that you did not know this. You have created a straw man that I guess you were not aware off. I think you need to take a fresh look at this argument. I have been confused by your arguments against ID now it is clear.

    Once ID invokes “design”, questions about the designer are legitimate and expected. That ID does not discuss this designer is a weakness of the idea. If there is no possible designer, or if the designer is wholly outside empiricism, then it is not a scientific explanation or model (i.e.: theory).

    sean s.

  9. sean samis,

    Once ID invokes “design”, questions about the designer are legitimate and expected. That ID does not discuss this designer is a weakness of the idea.

    This is exactly right. A pro talking about ID will shut down the discussion beyond the design discussion. If you look at my discussion with Mike Behe you will see he agrees with this point.

  10. walto: Suppose, for the sake of argument, that KN’s two questions #3 are oddly put. #1 and #2 seem fine,

    We are in agreement. I’m not sure what he is trying to get at with 3 that is why I asked for clarification

    walto: I don’t believe the atheists here would do any worse on their questions than the theists do on theirs–theist pomposity on this matter, notwithstanding.

    I’m not sure if atheists would do worse on those three questions. If we did not see any statistical difference the solution would be to add questions or respondents until we did see a difference. a tie would be a non-result.

    peace

  11. sean samis: Once ID invokes “design”, questions about the designer are legitimate and expected. That ID does not discuss this designer is a weakness of the idea. If there is no possible designer, or if the designer is wholly outside empiricism, then it is not a scientific explanation or model (i.e.: theory).

    sean s.

    I often wonder whether comments like these are meant to be taken seriously. ID is a PURELY theological apologetic approach. It starts with a god, without which there would be no ID of any kind. As others have pointed out, if it ain’t the god of ID, then ID itself is nothing more than “somehow, at some time, something unspecified did something, resulting in us.”

    Occasionally, the ID folks have been honest (!) and admitted that yes, they start with the belief in their god. And even admit that ID is the political end of Christian zeal and activity — the effort to CLAIM that it’s science in order to get legal dispensation to preach in public schools to children young enough to fall for it.

    It doesn’t bother creationists to be corrected about their misuse of the concept of science, anymore than it bothers Trump that the fact-checkers find he’s lying 90% of the time. We truly live in the post-truth era, where emotions and feelings and desires inform our realities, and facts need not be involved.

    In this modern world, religious rationalizations, misinformation, doublespeak, quote mining, and flat-out lying are “correct” to the degree that these techniques garner converts (and often, get votes). What better yardstick could you ask for?

  12. John Harshman: Your question is meaningless. A Turing test involves a subject sitting down at a terminal and typing back and forth with a tester. It’s a test for the human-type intelligence of the subject. Immediately we should be able to see two problems: 1) the universe isn’t going to sit down at a terminal and 2) even if it did, that would be a test of whether the universe itself were intelligent, not of whether it had an intelligent creator.

    Now, if you meant to refer not to an actual Turing test but to something vaguely similar in some way to a Turing test, you really do have to describe what you’re talking about before it can be discussed.

    I prefer this variant:

  13. Flint: ID is a PURELY theological apologetic approach. It starts with a god, without which there would be no ID of any kind.

    At the risk of derailing my own thread. I would argue that with out God there would be nothing at all. I think pretty much all theists would agree with that point.

    Saying that ID requires God is not a problem for the enterprise. Everything requires God. That is part of what the term “God” means.

    On the other hand ID is not a exercise about God it’s an exercise about design and how to recognize it. I would say that mainstream ID specifically deals with recognizing design in nature.

    While I’m am interested in that sort of thing I think that recognizing design in general is probably more cool and useful right now.

    That is why I am so fascinated with AI and Turing tests. I tentatively think the only valid way to ascertain if a computer is truly conscious is to catch it designing something. I mean real and not pseudo design. Being able to tell the difference between those two things might be the only way to know if a computer is also a mind or not.

    So as much as the “skeptics” here want to discount ID as nothing more than apologetics I think that it just might be the only way to save us from a life of slavery to the robot overlords 🙂

    peace

  14. fifthmonarchyman:
    . . .
    On the other hand ID is not a exercise about God it’s an exercise about design and how to recognize it.
    . . . .

    That’s simply not true. Intelligent design creationism is a clear and blatant attempt to circumvent the constitutional separation of church and state in the U.S. Look up “cdesign proponentsists” for the evidence.

  15. fifthmonarchyman: So as much as the “skeptics” here want to discount ID as nothing more than apologetics I think that it just might be the only way to save us from a life of slavery to the robot overlords

    Then we are doomed.

  16. fifthmonarchyman: I mean real and not pseudo design. Being able to tell the difference between those two things might be the only way to know if a computer is also a mind or not.

    Is the the pattern of elements of Yosemite Valley a real design?

  17. fifthmonarchyman: o as much as the “skeptics” here want to discount ID as nothing more than apologetics I think that it just might be the only way to save us from a life of slavery to the robot overlords

    And people say that ID-backers don’t have any good reasons for their views! 😉

  18. Patrick: Intelligent design creationism is a clear and blatant attempt to circumvent the constitutional separation of church and state in the U.S.

    There is no such thing as “intelligent design creationism” and the “constitutional separation of church and state” isn’t what you think it is. Where do you get these bizarre ideas? They certainly don’t come from libertarianism.

  19. Ever since I heard of the concept “Intelligent Design” I found it dubious and likely bogus. Simply put, the notion of “detecting design” is just plain silly and belies and ignorance of what “design” actually means.

    A “design” is a planned approach to either a) solve a specific problem or b) meet a specific requirement goal. There is really no way of looking at some product or component and determine anything about the requirements or how such solved a particular problem. At best, one might be able to determine that a product or component was manufactured, but even then, such does not say anything about the product or component having been designed. There are number of human manufactured items for which there are and were no designs. Mozart, for example, readily stated that he did not design his music; he claims he heard most, if not all of them, in his mind as early as he could recollect. I have created an entire wildlife refuge without spending a second on any design.

    So really,,,”intelligent design” is just plainly nonsense.

  20. fifthmonarchyman: At the risk of derailing my own thread. I would argue that with out God there would be nothing at all. I think pretty much all theists would agree with that point.

    I’m sure pretty much all theists might agree with your point, but there’s no reason for that beyond their subjective conclusions; and certainly no reason for skeptics to agree. The necessity of a deity has resisted proof.

    fifthmonarchyman: Saying that ID requires God is not a problem for the enterprise. Everything requires God. That is part of what the term “God” means.

    This is also true, and why ID is not any kind of science. It is religion through-and-through. That does not make ID bad, but the pretense of being rational or scientific is bad.

    The term “God” may mean what you say, but the term could well refer to something entirely imaginary.

    fifthmonarchyman: On the other hand ID is not a exercise about God it’s an exercise about design and how to recognize it. I would say that mainstream ID specifically deals with recognizing design in nature.

    While I’m am interested in that sort of thing I think that recognizing design in general is probably more cool and useful right now.

    ID assumes design where ever it needs to. The logical problem of recognizing design does not need any reference to any deity.

    fifthmonarchyman: That is why I am so fascinated with AI and Turing tests. I tentatively think the only valid way to ascertain if a computer is truly conscious is to catch it designing something. I mean real and not pseudo design. Being able to tell the difference between those two things might be the only way to know if a computer is also a mind or not.

    I don’t see how you’d ever distinguish between “real” and “pseudo-“ design. It’s good to keep this kind of thinking tentative…

    fifthmonarchyman: So as much as the “skeptics” here want to discount ID as nothing more than apologetics I think that it just might be the only way to save us from a life of slavery to the robot overlords. …

    … by helping enslave us to the belief in an imaginary deity? I’ll take my chances with the robot overlords. As someone said once, artificial intelligence is probably a good idea given the shortage of the natural kind.

    sean s.

  21. Mung: There is no such thing as “intelligent design creationism” …

    There’s no movement using the term “intelligent design creationism” but it is a good way to refer to creationists and ID-advocates; different sides of the same base coinage.

    Mung: … and the “constitutional separation of church and state” isn’t what you think it is.

    Even con-law scholars dispute about the Establishment Clause. But to the best of my knowledge, every time a court blocks the teaching of intelligent design/creationism, it’s on Establishment Clause principles.

    Mung: Where do you get these bizarre ideas? They certainly don’t come from libertarianism.

    Gosh, I hope not. I generally agree with Patrick and I LOATH libertarianism.

    sean s.

  22. Robin,

    A “design” is a planned approach to either a) solve a specific problem or b) meet a specific requirement goal. There is really no way of looking at some product or component and determine anything about the requirements or how such solved a particular problem. At best, one might be able to determine that a product or component was manufactured, but even then, such does not say anything about the product or component having been designed.

    So if I put 6 products in front of you 3 that were designed and 3 that were not, you think you would fail identifying the designed products? I think we could find some google images and test this.

  23. sean samis,

    There’s no movement using the term “intelligent design creationism” but it is a good way to refer to creationists and ID-advocates; different sides of the same base coinage.

    This is a term used by political organizations like the NCSE in order to block a competing hypothesis to UCD. The establishment clause is being violated all the time as Evolutionism is indoctrinated in our schools and universities.

    It has been very effective spin but all good marketing campaigns have a half life.:-)

  24. colewd: So if I put 6 products in front of you 3 that were designed and 3 that were not, you think you would fail identifying the designed products?

    What’s your example of a non-designed product?

  25. colewd: This [“intelligent design creationism”] is a term used by political organizations like the NCSE in order to block a competing hypothesis to UCD. The establishment clause is being violated all the time as Evolutionism is indoctrinated in our schools and universities.

    It has been very effective spin but all good marketing campaigns have a half life.:-)

    Evolution has no religious content or premises so teaching it does not violate the Establishment Clause.

    If telling the truth is just “spin” then I’m OK with that.

    The half-life of the truth is indefinite.

    sean s.

  26. colewd:
    Robin,

    So if I put 6 products in front of you 3 that were designed and 3 that were not, you think you would fail identifying the designed products?I think we could find some google images and test this.

    It would obviously depend on the products, which is my whole point. But further, since the ONLY products you could possibly put in front of me would be either natural or man-made, such makes your question rather moot since identifying man-made objects is relatively easy precisely because I (and others) not only know how humans design things (being a human, it’s kind of innate), but we also recognize human production effects, something the concept of ID oddly overlooks.

    The point of my previous comment though is that, in the absence of any knowledge about the designer, there’s no way one could actually infer design, intelligent or otherwise. At best, one might be able to infer production from the product entails (effects of the tools or process used to build said product), but even that’s a stretch given that it’s conceivable that some intelligence out there could manufacture things using tools and processes so beyond human understanding there’d be no way to detect any effects.

    So, if and when all ID proponents relent and admit that ID is only useful for deducing human design, fine. Nothing unreasonable there. But insisting that there’s a way to infer non-human design, particularly non-human “intelligent design”? Utter absurdity, particularly when looking at biological organisms.

  27. colewd:
    sean samis,

    This is a term used by political organizations like the NCSE in order to block a competing hypothesis to UCD.The establishment clause is being violated all the time as Evolutionism is indoctrinated in our schools and universities.

    It has been very effective spin but all good marketing campaigns have a half life.:-)

    Personally, I say we continue to violate religious rights and indoctrinate our youth with satanic secular explanations until some damn fool gets off his or her ass and demonstrates that his or her deity and/or pet extraterrestrial alien was actual behind the “intelligent design” he or she insists exists. Seems like a fair cop to me.

  28. colewd:
    Robin,

    So if I put 6 products in front of you 3 that were designed and 3 that were not, you think you would fail identifying the designed products?I think we could find some google images and test this.

    Yes, put three machines and three organisms in front of me, and I’d have no problem identifying the three designed products.

    The trouble with IDists is that they want to pretend that it’s hard to do, but can be accomplished by a bunch of bogus numbers.

    Glen Davidson

  29. Robin,

    Personally, I say we continue to violate religious rights and indoctrinate our youth with satanic secular explanations until some damn fool gets off his or her ass and demonstrates that his or her deity and/or pet extraterrestrial alien was actual behind the “intelligent design” he or she insists exists. Seems like a fair cop to me.

    Cool: let ideological indoctrination continue 🙂

  30. GlenDavidson,

    Yes, put three machines and three organisms in front of me, and I’d have no problem identifying the three designed products.

    How about 3 man made machines and three biological molecular machines?

  31. colewd: Cool: let ideological indoctrination continue 🙂

    At least it’s fact-based indoctrination instead of the fantasy-based alternative. 🙂

    sean s.

  32. colewd:
    GlenDavidson,

    How about 3 man made machines and three biological molecular machines?

    It’s about the same, although the scientist has to consider context and history more as IDists isolate bits and pieces especially to ignore both.

    But no, it’s not hard to differentiate between intelligently designed and copied bits, and historically-bound and hereditarily-limited biology. There’s thinking reflected in the first, not in the second.

    Glen Davidson

  33. Robin,

    The point of my previous comment though is that, in the absence of any knowledge about the designer, there’s no way one could actually infer design, intelligent or otherwise.

    I hear your declaration here but this is just an opinion that is desperately trying to create a straw man argument. The continued attempts to make straw man arguments shows extreme weakness in the counter arguments against design.

    You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts. No knowledge of the designer is required.

    But lets still indoctrinate those kids. They are so much easier to manage when they are ignorant.

  34. sean samis: At least it’s fact-based indoctrination instead of the fantasy-based alternative.

    sean s.

    Or more to the point, evolution wouldn’t exist without the evidence. ID did and does exist without real evidence, only with rather inexact and incorrect analogies.

    There’s a real problem with the premises behind this OP and thread, however, which is the assumption that we’re discussing ideologies on both sides and not with science vs. ideology (at best), or more correctly, theology. The second false premise is related, in that what supposedly matters is what IDists say, not what they’re really doing.

    It’s perfectly idiotic to claim that ID is not “about the designer” because some of the theologues pushing it have said so. Who cares what they say? Were it science it would be about either general designers and what they do (that is, not what unintelligent evolution does), or it would be about a specific designer or set of designers and what they demonstrably do. ID tries to avoid both, because life doesn’t comport with actual design principles, and we don’t have specific designers known to design life to look like it evolved sans intelligent choices. That is, it fails at that crucial juncture, so it claims to just be detecting design, only it’s all too apparent that they’re just trying to define functional complexity as designed without any reasonable evidence for that claim.

    Glen Davidson

  35. GlenDavidson,

    It’s about the same, although the scientist has to consider context and history more as IDists isolate bits and pieces especially to ignore both.

    But no, it’s not hard to differentiate between intelligently designed and copied bits and historically-bound and hereditarily-limited biology. There’s thinking reflected in the first, not in the second.

    What do you mean by copied bits? Can you demonstrate that there is no thinking in the second?

  36. sean samis: Evolution has no religious content or premises so teaching it does not violate the Establishment Clause.

    Correct. Evolutionary theory also has no implications for religion, either.

    There is no sense in which teaching evolutionary theory as the best currently available theory of adaptation and speciation violates the Establishment Clause. The idea that it does is just creationist propaganda.

  37. colewd: … Can you demonstrate that there is no thinking in the second?

    This appears to be a request to demonstrate a negative.

    Can you demonstrate that there is “thinking in the second”?

    Not just opine, but actually demonstrate it?

    sean s.

  38. colewd:
    Robin,

    Cool: let ideological indoctrination continue

    Hey…so long as the supposed Christian “God” isn’t being promoted above all other legends, myths, and religious deities in the public sector and isn’t allowed within 1000 feet of anything remotely science related, I really could care less what you call it.

  39. colewd:
    GlenDavidson,

    What do you mean by copied bits?Can you demonstrate that there is no thinking in the second?

    Oh please, it shouldn’t be that hard to realize that I was discussing intelligently copied bits there, vs. the limitations of biology. I stuck in a comma in edit to make it a bit more clear, but it should have been obvious anyway.

    The point being that any general designer could and should copy from one lineage to another one, which is not what we see in biology. Or a supreme intelligence might skip the copying and come up with optimum design in every case. Assuming for the sake of ID’s pretensions that we’re not talking about Supreme Intelligence, a cephalopod, say, could have vertebrate eyes, or a vertebrate could have cephalopod eyes–or even better, the best of both types of eyes could be combined like intelligent designers do.

    We don’t see anything like that.

    Glen Davidson

  40. colewd:
    GlenDavidson,

    How about 3 man made machines and three biological molecular machines?

    BZZZZZZT! FAIL!

    Calling something a “biological molecular machine” is simply giving the lie to your agenda and is just question begging. How are you determining that something is a “biological molecular machine”? “Why…because it looks and behaves similar to man-made machine! And because man-made machines are designed, why this biological thing that behaves analogously to a man-made machine must be designed (psssst…by something intelligent too!)” *Facepalm*

    Sorry…the analogy (as has been shown repeatedly) just isn’t valid. Nothing about biology can be honestly called a “machine” because…wait for it…you can’t actually infer the design about anything non-man-made.

  41. colewd: You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts

    What would be taught in ID classes? Let me guess:


    Chapter 1: The Flagellum.
    The Flagellum was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 2: The Racoon.
    The Racoon was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 3: The Solar System.
    The Solar System was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 4: Humans.
    Humans are all designed, just look at their purposefully arranged set of parts. Your parents are not really your parents, you were manufactured in some cosmic human factory

  42. colewd: You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts.

    If you want to skip an honest attempt at discovery, and to instead define functional complexity as having been designed (manufactured, whatever).

    Then you don’t have to bother with science.

    Glen Davidson

  43. colewd:
    Robin,

    I hear your declaration here but this is just an opinion that is desperately trying to create a straw man argument. The continued attempts to make straw man arguments shows extreme weakness in the counter arguments against design.

    I am not setting up any strawman of anything. If you think I am, identify specifically what I am caricaturing falsely.

    You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts.No knowledge of the designer is required.

    No you can’t. It was a bad analogy when Bovier de Fontenelle attempted to make the argument in 1686 and when Paley laid it out explicitly in 1802 and it’s even worse today. As biology and chemistry show, there’s no such thing as a “purposeful arrangement of parts”. Organisms use their physiology in all sorts of creative ways to survive, in many cases in ways that utterly depart from the “convention”. Or are you suggesting that while a wing’s “purpose” is clearly flight, creatures that use their wings in other ways are not using them “correctly”? And how would you know?

    Insisting there’s a “purpose” to anything biological is epitome of arrogance to me. Flightless cormorants perfectly illustrate to me why. Ditto vestigial hind legs in whales and vastly superior ocular structures in mollusks. The whole perspective of “purpose” in biology (to say nothing of chemistry and physics) is simply nothing more than question begging.

    But lets still indoctrinate those kids.They are so much easier to manage when they are ignorant.

    Anything to prevent our kids from growing up question begging gremlins arranging biological “purposeful” parts suits me just fine.

  44. colewd: You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts. No knowledge of the designer is required.

    I don’t think that is true, because it trades on an ambiguity about “purposefully”.

    A biological organ — a pancreas, for example — can have a purpose (i.e. be purposive). Even cellular metabolism is purposive. But purposiveness does not logically entail design. Design is a hypothesis that purports to explain purposiveness. Such a hypothesis can be — and must be — empirically tested in order to count as a reasonable explanation.

    In short, not everything purposive is purposeful.

  45. dazz: What would be taught in ID classes? Let me guess:


    Chapter 1: The Flagellum.
    The Flagellum was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 2: The Racoon.
    The Racoon was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 3: The Solar System.
    The Solar System was designed, just look at it’s purposefully arranged set of parts.
    Chapter 4: Humans.
    Humans are all designed, just look at their purposefully arranged set of parts. Your parents are not really your parents, you were manufactured in some cosmic human factory

    Hahahaha Excellent.

  46. Robin:
    Calling something a “biological molecular machine” is simply giving the lie to your agenda and is just question begging. How are you determining that something is a “biological molecular machine”? Why…because it looks and behaves similar to man-made machine! And because man-made machines are designed, why this biological thing that behaves analogously to a man-made machine must be designed (psssst…by something intelligent too!)” *Facepalm*

    Sorry…the analogy (as has been shown repeatedly) just isn’t valid. Nothing about biology can be honestly called a “machine” because…wait for it…you can’t actually infer the design about anything non-man-made.

    Exactly. ID is just one big argument from analogy. That argument is in no better shape now than it was when Hume eviscerated it in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion.

  47. colewd: … You can easily infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts. No knowledge of the designer is required.

    I missed this earlier; dazz’s objections (and later ones by others) are all on the mark; this claim is circular.

    You cannot infer design from a purposefully arranged set of parts BECAUSE you don’t know that those parts are “purposefully arranged” until AFTER you determine if they were designed; at which point no inference of design is meaningful.

    sean s. [edited]

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